The two say they will turn down a proposed Congressional Gold Medal honoring the victims. In attendance were major leaders of the Civil Rights Movement, including Martin Luther King Jr.[71] This legislation prohibited discrimination based on race, color, religion, gender, or national origin; to ensure full, equal rights of African Americans before the law. birmingham church bombing victims autopsy. Baxley also gathered evidence proving Chambliss had purchased dynamite from a store in Jefferson County less than two weeks before the bomb was planted,[74] upon the pretext the dynamite was to be used to clear land the KKK had purchased near Highway 101. The force crumbled a stone-and-masonry wall 30 inches thick and left a crater more than 2 feet deep.Retired FBI bomb specialist Charles Killion testified that agents never determined what kind of explosive was used or how the bomb was triggered. The four individuals named in the FBI report were Blanton, Cash, Chambliss, and Cherry. On the afternoon of May 22, after the jury had deliberated for almost seven hours, the forewoman announced they had reached their verdicts: Bobby Frank Cherry was convicted of four counts of first-degree murder and sentenced to life imprisonment. "[104], In addition to calling attention to flaws in the prosecution's case, the defense exposed inconsistencies in the memories of some prosecution witnesses who had testified. Although no city officials attended this service,[55] an estimated 800 clergymen of all races were among the attendees. The Birmingham church bombing occurred on September 15, 1963, when a bomb exploded before Sunday morning services at the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabamaa church with a. Robinson died before reaching the hospital. Today marks the 50th anniversary of the white supremacist bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama that killed four young girls. [116], His first parole hearing was held on August 3, 2016. [68] Later the same year, J. Edgar Hoover formally blocked any impending federal prosecutions against the suspects,[69] and refused to disclose any evidence his agents had obtained with state or federal prosecutors.[70]. [99]:162, The state prosecution had originally intended to try both defendants together; however, the trial of Bobby Cherry was delayed due to the findings of a court-ordered psychiatric evaluation. 0 On Sept. 15, 1963, four young girls were killed in a bombing at the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama. Three 14-year-olds Addie Mae Collins,. Herman Frank Cash died of cancer in February 1994. [17] Other acts of violence followed the settlement, and several staunch Klansmen were known to have expressed frustration at what they saw as a lack of effective resistance to integration.[18]. [93] In the years since his incarceration, Chambliss had been confined to a solitary cell to protect him from attacks by fellow inmates. [12] Black residents did not just experience segregation in the context of leisure and employment, but also in the context of their freedom and well-being. T hursday marked the 59th anniversary of white supremacists' deadly bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama. Following the bombing, the 16th Street Baptist Church remained closed for over eight months, as assessments and, later, repairs were conducted upon the property. The bombing that killed Collins and her friends was a racially motivated hate crime. We all did it! dartmouth football coach salary. Four young girls, ranging in age from 11 to 14, were killed in the explosion, which also caused anywhere between 14 and 22 additional injuries. See how the church and the city is remembering that tragic day in the video above. This appeal was dismissed on May 22, 1979. Astrological Sign: Aries. [107], The trial lasted for one week. Through these rulings, Mitchell Burns was called to testify on behalf of the prosecution. Such a lack of evidence isnt unusual in powerful explosions, he said, because bomb components often are destroyed.However, defense attorney Mickey Johnson hammered at the lack of evidence. Relatives of the slain girls, prosecutor Doug Jones, Alabama Chief Deputy Attorney General Alice Martin, and Jefferson County district attorney Brandon Falls each spoke at the hearing to oppose Blanton's parole. )[22]:63. Also, at that time, information from our surveillance was not admissible in court. Blanton is the last surviving KKK member convicted of murder in the bombing of Birmingham's 16th Street Baptist Church. Although this march was met with fierce resistance and criticism, and 600 arrests were made on the first day alone, the Birmingham campaign and its Children's Crusade continued until May 5. Although the credibility of Brogdon's testimony was called into dispute at the trial, forensic experts conceded that, although her account of the planting of the bombing differed from that which had been discussed in the previous perpetrators' trials, Brogdon's recollection of Cherry's account of the planting and subsequent lighting of the bomb could explain why no conclusive remnants of a timing device were discovered after the bombing. In his opening statement to the jurors, defense attorney John Robbins acknowledged his client's affiliation with the Ku Klux Klan and his views on racial segregation. [115] Blanton was confined in a one-man cell under tight security. Denise McNair, Cynthia Wesley, Addie Mae Collins and Carole Robertson, those were the names of the four little girls who were murdered on September 15th, 1963, when the Ku Klux Klan bombed the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama. Two more violent deaths that day Later that day, 13-year-old Virgil Ware, riding on the. Moments later, services were held at a nearby grave for Addie Mae Collins, another victim of the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing. Four black girls were killed and at least 14 others were. Although never formally named as one of the conspirators by the FBI, Rowe's record of deception on the polygraph tests leaves open the possibility that Chambliss's claims may have held a degree of truth. Your irresponsible and misguided actions have created in Birmingham and Alabama the atmosphere that has induced continued violence and now murder. In his rebuttal closing argument, defense attorney Art Hanes Jr. attacked the evidence presented by the prosecution as being purely circumstantial,[87] adding that, despite the existence of similar circumstantial evidence, Chambliss had not been prosecuted in 1963 of the church bombing. [102] In January 2002, Judge Garrett ruled Cherry mentally competent to stand trial and set an initial trial date for April 29. The Birmingham Times. Prayer, revival and Jesus Revolution: Is our rotting culture on verge of something big? Martin Luther King Jr. described Birmingham as "probably the most thoroughly segregated city in the United States. Both the church and the bereaved families received an estimated $23,000 in cash donations from members of the public. Cobbs also testified that approximately one week after the bombing, she had observed Chambliss watching a news report relating to the four girls killed in the bombing. [73] Baxley formally reopened the case in 1971. On the morning of Sunday, September 15, 1963, 14-year-old Collins was in the church basement room with a group of other children. The church's pastor, the Reverend John Cross Jr., attempted to placate the crowd by loudly reciting the 23rd Psalm through a bullhorn. He said the blast shredded the girls bodies.Some members of the jury looked down and grimaced as Mr. Brissie used a large screen to display black-and-white photographs of the bodies.Defendant Bobby Frank Cherry also turned his head away from the photos, which werent visible to a gallery that included several of the victims relatives sitting in the front row.Mr. In spite of the darkness of this hour, we must not become bitter We must not lose faith in our white brothers. We strive for accuracy and fairness.If you see something that doesn't look right,contact us! birmingham church bombing victims autopsyirina emelyanova pasternak 26th February 2023 / in coastal carolina football camp 2022 / by / in coastal carolina football camp 2022 / by longan tree california; [11], Black and white residents of Birmingham had access to different public amenities such as water fountains and places of public gathering such as movie theaters. The act of terror by four members of the KKK at the. An estimated 2,000 Black people converged on the scene in the hours following the explosion. Crucial testimony at Cherry's trial was delivered by his former wife, Willadean Brogdon, who had married Cherry in 1970. Demonstrators present were given instructions to march to downtown Birmingham and discuss with the mayor their concerns about racial segregation in the city, and to integrate buildings and businesses currently segregated. "[99] Cross testified that she would usually have accompanied her friends into the basement lounge to change into robes for the forthcoming sermon, but she had been given an assignment. Three men were convicted of murdering Addie Mae Collins long after her death, in trials held between 1977 and 2002. Marchers at a civil rights demonstration in Washington, D.C., on Sept. 22, 1963, hold posters reading "No More Birminghams," in response to the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing. She was 93. On April 10, 2001, Judge James Garrett indefinitely postponed Cherry's trial, pending further medical analysis. She died Sunday at 93. 16th Street Church Bombing Part 13 of 51 View. . BIRMINGHAM, Ala. The 16 th Street Baptist Church is an iconic landmark with its blue neon sign, dramatic stained-glass windows, and imposing twin bell towers. But, he warned the jury: "Just because you don't like him, that doesn't make him responsible for the bombing. Jones repeated the most damning statements Blanton had made in these recordings, before pointing at Blanton and stating: "That is a confession out of this man's mouth. Cherry's defense attorney, Mickey Johnson, protested his client's innocence, citing that much of the evidence presented was circumstantial. He had repeatedly proclaimed his innocence, insisting Gary Thomas Rowe Jr. was the actual perpetrator. The 16th Street Baptist Church bombing marked a turning point in the United States during the civil rights movement and also contributed to support for the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 by Congress. (AP Photo/Jay Reeves) Sarah Collins Rudolph, the lone survivor of a 1963 church bombing, and Fate Morris, whose sister died in the blast, discuss their desire for compensation from the bombing during an interview in Birmingham, Ala., on Wednesday, April 10 . [106] The defense portrayed the audiotapes introduced into evidence as the statements of "two rednecks driving around, drinking" and making false, ego-inflating claims to one another. Source: Melynda Sides/WBRC. Wed Sep 18th 2013 by abagond. [30] Another victim was killed by a piece of mortar embedded in her skull. At least 14 others are injured in. [127], When asked by the judge whether he had anything to say before sentence was imposed, Cherry motioned to the prosecutors and stated: "This whole bunch lied through this thing [the trial]. [32] All four girls were pronounced dead on arrival at the Hillman Emergency Clinic. It was here on Sept. 15, 1963. Brogdon also testified that Cherry had told her of his regret that children had died in the bombing, before adding his satisfaction that they would never reproduce. They forever changed the face of this state and the history of this state. In the months leading up to the church bombing, the Civil Rights Movement had made strides in the city of Birmingham. Addie Mae Collins was a 14-year-old murder victim whose 1963 death focused public attention on racial violence in the South. Reverend Cobbs stated that her uncle had repeatedly informed her he had been engaged in what he referred to as a "one-man battle" against Blacks since the 1940s. On the morning of Sunday, September 15, 1963, 14-year-old Collins was in the church basement room with a group of other children. Cherry, who now lives in Mabank, Texas, and another ex-Klansman, Thomas Blanton Jr., were indicted on murder charges two years ago. Original data: Commonwealth War Graves Commission. the hideaway book ending > birmingham church bombing victims autopsy ; February 26, 2023 the Blitz, (September 7, 1940-May 11, 1941), intense bombing campaign undertaken by Nazi Germany against the United Kingdom during World War II. 4 girls were killed, and 14 were injured. The blast, erupting from the church's east side, sprayed mortar and bricks, caving in the building's walls. Seven witnesses testified on behalf of the prosecution, and two for the defense. After Baxley requested access to the original FBI files on the case, he learned that evidence accumulated by the FBI against the named suspects between 1963 and 1965 had not been revealed to the local prosecutors in Birmingham. Jackson testified that Chambliss had expressed frustration that the Klan was "dragging its feet" on the issue of racial integration,[18] and said he was eager to form a splinter group more dedicated to resistance. Jones reviewed Blanton's extensive history with the Ku Klux Klan, before referring to the audio recordings presented earlier in the trial. [120] Cherry pleaded not guilty to the charges and did not testify on his own behalf during the trial. Chambliss had been indicted by a grand jury on September 24, 1977, charged with four counts of murder, for each dead child in the 1963 church bombing. The deaths in a sense, are on the hands of each of us. The files were sealed by order of J. Edgar Hoover. [100] It concluded that vascular dementia had impaired his mind, therefore making Cherry mentally incompetent to stand trial or assist in his own defense.[101]. Original caption: Alabama-Birmingham-bombings-Body being removed at 16th Street Baptist Church bombing. [83], In his closing argument before the jury on November 17,[84] Baxley acknowledged that Chambliss was not the sole perpetrator of the bombing. Burns had secretly recorded several conversations with Blanton in which the latter (Blanton) had gloated when talking about the bombing, and had boasted the police would not catch him when he bombed another church. Sun 15 Sep 2013 10.04 EDT. President Barack Obama would go on to sign a bill awarding the four young victims of the tragic 1963 Birmingham church bombing with the Congressional Gold Medal.. Barbara Cross, a friend of the girls who survived the church bombing, once recounted to TIME how close she was to possibly being the fifth person killed. The call was answered by the acting Sunday School secretary, a 14-year-old girl named Carolyn Maull. Baxley noted that the day of the closing argument fell upon what would have been Carol Denise McNair's 26th birthday and that she would have likely been a mother by this date. Mauldin testified on April 30 that he had observed two men in a Rambler station wagon adorned with a Confederate flag repeatedly drive past the church immediately before the blast, and that, seconds after the bomb had exploded, the car had "burned rubber" as it drove away. ", "Today in 1963: The Bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church", "Justice Story: Birmingham church bombing kills 4 innocent girls in racially motivated attack", "Former Klansmen indicted for murder in 1963 bombing of Birmingham, Alabama church", "16th Street Baptist Church Bombing (1963) (U.S. National Park Service)", "Letter From Birmingham City Jail (Excerpts)", "Theophilus Eugene "Bull" Connor (1897-1973) (U.S. National Park Service)", "Birmingham Confrontation Reconsidered: An Analysis of the Dynamics and Tactics of Mobilization", "Ghosts of Alabama: The Prosecution of Bobby Frank Cherry for the Bombing of the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church", "Memories of An Imperial City: Race, Gender, and Birmingham, Alabama", "Six Negro Children Killed in Alabama Sunday", "Former Klansman Is Guilty Of Bomb Deaths", "16th Street Baptist Church Bombing Survivors Recall a Day That Changed the Fight for Civil Rights: 'I Will Never Stop Crying Thinking About It', "Killer of Four in 1963 Blast Dies in Prison", "John Cross Jr. Pastor at Bombed Church, Dies at 82", "The Birmingham Church Bombing: Bombingham", "Remembering the Birmingham Church Bombing", "John Cross Jr., Pastor at Bombed Church, Dies at 82", "Awarding Congressional Gold Medal to Addie Mae Collins, Denise McNair, Carole Robertson, and Cynthia Wesley", "From the archive, 16 September 1963: Black church bombed in Birmingham, Alabama", "Father Recalls Deadly Blast At Ala. Baptist Church", "1963 Birmingham Church Bombing Fast Facts", "New Memorial for 16th St. Baptist Church on Sun, 56 Years After Bombing", "16th Street Baptist Church Bombing: Forty Years Later, Birmingham Still Struggles with Violent Past", "40 years for Justice: Did the FBI Cover for the Birmingham Bombers? Five children were in the basement at the time of the explosion,[23] in a restroom close to the stairwell, changing into choir robes[24] in preparation for a sermon entitled "A Rock That Will Not Roll". [50]:272, The service for Carole Rosamond Robertson was held at St. John's African Methodist Episcopal Church. On September 15,1963, a bomb went off at Sixteenth Street Baptist Church in Birmingham. Following the opening statements, the prosecution began presenting witnesses. He was 82 years old. At 10:22 a.m., a bomb exploded under the steps of the church.. Following the closing arguments, the jury retired to begin their deliberations, which lasted for over six hours and continued into the following day. Bobby Frank Cherry was tried in Birmingham, Alabama, before Judge James Garrett, on May 6, 2002. The "Four Spirits" was created as a memorial to the four little girls that died in the 16th Street Church bombing in 1963: Addie Mae Collins, Denise McNair, Carolyn Robertson and . Described by Martin Luther King Jr. as "one of the most vicious and tragic crimes ever perpetrated against humanity,"[5] the explosion at the church killed four girls and injured between 14 and 22 other people. As a result, no federal charges were filed in the '60s. [8] It was the location where students were organized and trained by the SCLC Director of Direct Action, James Bevel, to participate in the 1963 Birmingham campaign's Children's Crusade after other marches had taken place. A local chapter of the Ku Klux Klan placed bombs at the 16th Street Baptist Church and set them off as Sunday services prepared to commence on the morning of September 15, 1963. [17], In response to the church bombing, described by the Mayor of Birmingham, Albert Boutwell, as "just sickening", the Attorney General dispatched 25 FBI agents, including explosives experts, to Birmingham to conduct a thorough forensic investigation. That bomb took the lives of four young girls, including my friend and playmate [Carol] Denise McNair. He said this past was not the evidence upon which they should return their verdicts. Best Known For: Addie Mae Collins was a 14-year-old murder victim whose 1963 death focused public attention on racial violence in the South. In addition to the four fatalities, more than 20 people were injured. Birmingham Church Bombing 50th Anniversary September 13, 2013 Fifty years after it was bombed, Sixteenth Street Baptist Church stands as a witness to the violence and suffering of the civil. A fourth suspect died without being charged. [75]:574, Chambliss appealed his conviction, as provided under the law, saying that much of the evidence presented at his trialincluding testimony relating to his activities within the KKKwas circumstantial; that the 14-year delay between the crime and his trial violated his constitutional right to a speedy trial; and the prosecution had deliberately used the delay to try to gain an advantage over Chambliss's defense attorneys. Collins was killed in the blast along with Denise McNair, 11, and Carole Robertson and Cynthia Wesley, both 14. 18. [20], One of the key witnesses to testify on behalf of the prosecution was the Reverend Elizabeth Cobbs, Chambliss's niece. Robinson died before reaching the hospital. It has been 55 years since the bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama that saw the death of four black girls and injured many others. 1954-1957. Baxley obtained FBI files containing substantive information, including the names of suspects, which had been withheld by J. Edgar Hoover in the 1960s. Following the assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963, newly-inaugurated President Lyndon Johnson continued to press for passage of the civil rights bill sought by his predecessor. He was able to build trust with key witnesses, some of whom had been reluctant to testify in the first investigation. Many of the same audiotapes presented in Blanton's trial were also introduced into evidence in the trial of Bobby Cherry. (M) (M) patricia macarthur picture . She spoke with News4's Molette Green about . Now the Jury Must Decide", "Bobby Frank Cherry, 74, Klansman in Bombing, Dies", "Gary T. Rowe Jr., 64, Who Informed on Klan In Civil Rights Killing, Is Dead", "Long Fight Predicted In Case Against Rowe", "Paid FBI Informer Tells Of Murder, Silence", "Memorial Dedicated For Church Bombing Victims On Anniversary", "Siblings of the bombing: Remembering Birmingham church blast 50 years on", "Girl Living in Darkness After Church Bombing", "Alabama church bombing victims honoured by Welsh window", "American civil rights: the Welsh connection", "Death spares scrutiny of Cash in bomb probe", "Pastor Was At Church When Bomb Killed Four", United States Government Publishing Office, "A History of American Protest: When Nina Simone Sang what Everyone was Thinking", "American Guernica, LKM Music - Hal Leonard Online", "Still Reeling From the Day Death Came to Birmingham", "Television Review: A Father's Guilt; A Son's Wrenching Decision", "That Which Might Have Been, Birmingham 1963 - Phoenix, Arizona - Smithsonian Art Inventory Sculptures on Waymarking.com", "Memorial project for 16th Street Baptist Church bombing raises $200,000 of $250,000 goal", "Four Spirits unveiled across from Sixteenth Street Baptist Church", "Four Spirits Statue, Memorial to 16th Street Baptist Church Bombing Victims, Unveiled", Details of Robert Chambliss's 1979 appeal against his conviction, John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights, Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States, Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement, Green v. County School Board of New Kent County, Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights, Council for United Civil Rights Leadership, Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights, Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), "Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)", List of lynching victims in the United States, Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam, African American founding fathers of the United States, Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument, Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=16th_Street_Baptist_Church_bombing&oldid=1141643541, African-American history in Birmingham, Alabama, Attacks on religious buildings and structures in the United States, Massacres in religious buildings and structures, Racially motivated violence against African Americans, September 1963 events in the United States, Terrorist incidents in the United States in 1963, Short description is different from Wikidata, All Wikipedia articles written in American English, Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2023, All articles containing potentially dated statements, Articles with unsourced statements from September 2020, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0. Officially, the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing remained unsolved until after William Baxley was elected Attorney General of Alabama in January 1971. 16th Street Church Bombing Part 32 of 51 pages(1-249) View. 7 volumes. [133], I remembered the bombing of that Sunday School at 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham in 1963. [97], On May 16, 2000, a grand jury in Alabama indicted Thomas Edwin Blanton and Bobby Frank Cherry on eight counts each in relation to the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing. On May 21, 2002, both prosecution and defense attorneys delivered their closing arguments to the jury. Cross testified that each girl present had been taught to contemplate how Jesus would react to affliction or injustice, and they were asked to learn to consider, "What Would Jesus Do? Blanton's attorneys criticized the validity and quality of the 16 tape recordings introduced as evidence,[105] arguing that the prosecution had edited and spliced the sections of the audio recording that were secretly obtained within Blanton's kitchen, reducing the entirety of the tape by 26 minutes. On May 15,[123] Cross testified that prior to the explosion, she and the four girls killed had each attended a Youth Day Sunday School lesson in which the theme taught was how to react to a physical injustice. Within days of the bombing, investigators began to focus their attention upon a KKK splinter group known as the "Cahaba Boys". On Sept. 15, 1963, the blast claimed the lives of 11-year-old Denise McNair, 14-year-old Carole Robertson . I told the truth. On September 15, 1963, in Birmingham, a bomb exploded on 16th street Baptist Church at 10:22 A. . All Rights Reserved. "[124] Cochran outlined Cherry's extensive record of racial violence dating back to the 1950s, and noted that he had experience and training in constructing and installing bombs from his service as a Marine demolition expert. And despite the personal tragedy. On September 18, the funeral of the three other girls killed in the bombing was held at the Sixth Avenue Baptist Church. [1] [2] [3] Four members of a local Ku Klux Klan chapter planted 19 sticks of dynamite attached to a timing device beneath the steps located on the east side of the church. [75]:497 This testimony of witnesses and evidence was used to formally construct a case against Robert Chambliss. [21] The anonymous caller simply said the words, "Three minutes"[22]:10 to Maull before terminating the call. Denise was 11 years old; Cynthia, Addie Mae, and Carole were 14. At least 14 others are injured in. 808 certified writers online. September 16, 1963 brought news of one of the most horrific acts of hate and violence ever perpetrated during the Civil Rights movement. It was meant to suck the hope out of young lives, bury their aspirations, and ensure that old fears would be propelled forward into the next generation.[146]. Collins' murder remained officially unsolved until the 1970s. on Sunday, Sept. Their deaths created fear among most of the members of the African American community in Birmingham. 1963 Birmingham church bombing A grieving relative is led away from the site of the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing in Birmingham, Alabama, on September 15, 1963. Four . Petts then elaborated that the inspiration for the stained-glass image was a verse from the, On the 27th anniversary of the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing, a state historic marker was unveiled at Greenwood Cemetery, the final resting place of three of the four victims of the bombing (Carole Robertson's body had been reburied in Greenwood Cemetery in 1974, following the death of her father). Four young black girls-Addie Mae Collins, Carol Denise McNair, and Cynthia Diane Wesley, and Carole Robertson-were killed in a church bombing planned by white supremacists. In the early morning of Sunday, September 15, 1963, four members of the United Klans of AmericaThomas Edwin Blanton Jr., Robert Edward Chambliss,[19] Bobby Frank Cherry, and (allegedly) Herman Frank Cashplanted a minimum of 15 sticks[20] of dynamite with a time delay under the steps of the church, close to the basement. [61] Although he met with initial resistance from the FBI,[50]:278 in 1976 Baxley was formally presented with some of the evidence which had been compiled by the FBI, after he publicly threatened to expose the Department of Justice for withholding evidence which could result in the prosecution of the perpetrators of the bombing.[76]. Friends was a 14-year-old murder victim whose 1963 death focused public attention on racial violence in FBI... 4 girls were killed and at least 14 others were Mitchell Burns was to! Bereaved families received an estimated $ 23,000 in Cash donations from members the. Reopened the case in 1971 the evidence upon which they should return their.. Focused public attention on racial violence in the '60s on Sept. 15, 1963 brought news of one of 16th... Attention on racial violence in the South Luther King Jr. described Birmingham as `` probably the most segregated. 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